Beyond “Co-Op”: A Spectrum of Cooperation

Crafting a truly collaborative experience is a complex undertaking beyond simply putting people on the same side. Understanding the desired type of cooperative game and its inherent dynamics will guide you in designing an experience that genuinely motivates cooperation.

Cooperative subgenres

When creating a cooperative game, the first step is to define the kind of experience you’re targeting. The term “cooperative” encompasses a wide spectrum of gameplay, each with distinct player dynamics and design considerations. Neglecting these nuances can result in cooperative mechanics that feel artificial, forced, or even counterproductive to collaboration.

To illustrate, we’ll examine a number of different cooperative subgenres and how we can best cultivate great team work in each:

This overview isn’t exhaustive — you’ll likely envision other cooperative experiences or identify overlaps between the categories presented here. However, considering each in isolation will help you appreciate some specific forces at work and provide you with a deeper foundation for your own design decisions.

Each section features three subsections:

Common features — Typical elements and mechanics you can expect to find in games of this type.
What makes it interesting — Considerations specific to this genre, highlighting aspects that may influence cooperation and / or require specific mitigation or management.
Design recommendations — Suggestions to consider in your designs to help you foster collaboration more effectively within the context of this particular genre.

While beyond the scope of this article, it’s crucial to note that identifying and addressing disruptive behavior is fundamental to fostering trust and cooperation among players.

big idea

Introduction to Disruptive Behaviors

Disruptive behaviors are generally the kinds of actions you DON’T want to see in digital spaces.

PvE (player vs. enemy)

PvE games emphasize a shared struggle as players attempt to overcome environmental challenges or defeat AI-controlled enemies. Shared resources, interdependent tasks, and specialized roles incentivize players to rely on each other’s strengths and contributions. Additionally, dynamic difficulty scaling and escalating threats can heighten the need for cooperation, creating a sense of both shared struggle and triumph.

GTFO. Image courtesy of press kit.

Risk of Rain 2. Image courtesy of press kit.

Destiny 2. Image courtesy of press kit.

Warframe. Image courtesy of press kit.

Examples: Deep Rock Galactic, GTFO, Destiny 2, Warframe, Risk of Rain 2

Focus: Working together to overcome environmental challenges or AI-controlled enemies

Common features:

Shared resources and objectives
Escalating difficulty and threats
Class-based systems or role specialization
Emphasis on survival and progression

What makes it interesting:

Shared risk and reward — The stakes can be high in cooperative PvE. Failure often means restarting a level or losing progress, creating a shared sense of risk and urgency. This can foster intense collaboration and camaraderie, but also lead to blame and finger-pointing if things go wrong.
Diverse roles and skill expression — Different character classes or roles offer unique ways to contribute to the team’s success. This allows players to specialize and express their individual skills, but also necessitates coordination and trust in each other’s abilities. It can also be a source of conflict if team composition is enforced.
Escalating challenges — PvE games often feature progressively difficult encounters, demanding increased cooperation and adaptation from players. This can be exhilarating when overcome as a team, but also frustrating if players feel overwhelmed or unable to keep up.
Mixed-skill teams — PvE games are a great way to spend time with friends of all skill levels. While skill-imbalances can be less of an issue than in an imbalance competitive match, it is still important to ensure that everyone feels they can contribute meaningfully.

Design recommendations:

Frame the PvE experience as a shared journey, where players work together to overcome a common enemy or challenge. This can foster a sense of camaraderie and shared purpose, even in the face of competitive tendencies.
Offer asymmetrical ways to contribute, so everyone feels they have value and players are able to find their own way to participate. Take care to not introduce unnecessary sources of competition around resources or tasks that can lead to breakdowns.

Team-based PvP (player vs. player)

In team-based PvP, while the overarching goal is competitive, the experience of competing on a team is a cooperative one. Designers can leverage clear roles, complementary abilities, and shared objectives to encourage coordinated strategies and communication. Positive reinforcement through team-based rewards and post-game recognition systems can further enhance collaborative efforts.

Valorant. Image courtesy of Riot Games.

Apex Legends. Image courtesy of press kit.

DOTA 2. Image courtesy of press kit.

Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare. Image courtesy of press kit.

Examples: Apex Legends, Call of Duty, Dota II, Valorant, Rainbow Six Siege

Focus: Competing against another team of players

Common features:

Predefined roles with complementary abilities (e.g., tank, damage, support)
Emphasis on strategic coordination and communication
Objective-based gameplay (e.g., capturing points, pushing payloads)
Ranking and matchmaking systems

What makes it interesting:

Competitive tone — While not a free-for-all setting like traditional Battle Royales (e.g., PUBG: Battlegrounds), there is still a highly competitive tone that can easily bleed into teamplay. Players can be quick to blame others for setbacks and losses.
Evolving meta — Introducing new characters, balance changes, or unexpected map interactions can spark fresh strategies and counter-strategies, keeping the gameplay experience dynamic. This encourages players to adapt and refine their tactics, discourages rigid playstyles, and reduces the tendency to “gatekeep” or enforce a single “correct” way to play.
Mixed-skill teams — Player compatibility goes beyond having similar skills and players understandably want to play with their friends. This can mean you face significant experience and skill deltas, making matchmaking difficult.

Design recommendations:

Design systems that reward both individual skill and cooperative play. Offer opportunities for personal achievements (e.g., high scores, unique rewards) while also emphasizing the importance of teamwork for overall success.
Matchmaking requires balancing individual player skill and team composition. Consider what makes players truly compatible in the game, and look for ways to help players find each other through game modes, group-based matchmaking, and encouraging premades.

PvPvE (player vs. player vs. environment)

In PvPvE games, cooperation is essential within a team to overcome environmental AI-controlled threats, but with the added complexity of also competing against other players. These games require a delicate balance of cooperation and competition, as teams must work together to survive and achieve objectives while simultaneously outsmarting and outmaneuvering rival players.

Rust. Image courtesy of press kit.

Screenshot from Tom Clancy's The Division (Dark Zone)

Tom Clancy’s The Division (Dark Zone). Image courtesy of press kit.

The Hunt: Showdown. Image courtesy of press kit.

Escape from Tarkov. Image courtesy of press kit.

Examples: Escape from Tarkov, Hunt: Showdown, The Division (Dark Zone), Rust

Focus: Competing against other players while simultaneously cooperating with teammates to overcome environmental challenges or AI-controlled enemies

Common features:

Shared resources and objectives within a team
Competition against other teams for resources, territory, or objectives
PvE elements like challenging environments or AI-controlled enemies
PvP elements like combat, resource gathering, and strategic planning
Often feature open-world environments or large-scale battles

What makes it interesting:

Dynamic and unpredictable gameplay — The combination of PvE and PvP elements creates a dynamic and unpredictable environment where players must constantly adapt to changing circumstances and threats.
High stakes and intense competition — The presence of other players vying for the same resources and objectives raises the stakes and creates a sense of urgency.
Conflicting social norms — The risk of raids and theft can be thrilling for some but frustrating for others, leading to potential player loss. While possible in PvE games, social norms often deter such behavior. PvE players new to PvPvE may be enticed yet face a rude awakening.
Complex social dynamics — PvPvE games often foster complex social interactions, as players must decide who to trust, who to betray, and how to balance cooperation within their team with competition against others.
Emergent gameplay — The open-ended nature of many PvPvE games allows for emergent gameplay, where players create their own stories and strategies through their interactions with the environment and other players.

Design recommendations:

Carefully balance the PvE and PvP elements to ensure neither aspect overshadows the other. The PvE challenges should be engaging and rewarding, while the PvP encounters should feel fair and competitive.
Offer designated safe havens where players can unwind, manage resources, or personalize their space without interruption. This allows for self-paced engagement and provides optional breaks from intense action, mitigating potential emotional dysregulation.
Don’t strive to please every player, but actively discourage aggressive gatekeeping and excessive competition. Recognize that prolonged intense play can negatively impact well-being, even for those who appear to “enjoy” it.

Cozy

Cozy games promote cooperation through shared community building and resource management. Designers can encourage players to help each other with tasks, share resources, and contribute to the overall well-being of the virtual world. The focus on positive interactions and shared progress naturally fosters a collaborative spirit.

Palia. Image courtesy of press kit.

Animal Crossing: New Horizons. Image courtesy of press kit.

Haven. Image courtesy of press kit.

Stardew Valley. Image courtesy of press kit.

Examples: Haven, Animal Crossing: New Horizons, Stardew Valley, Palia

Focus: Relaxed, low-stress gameplay with a focus on community building and social interactions

Common features:

Shared community spaces and activities
Resource sharing and trading
Focus on creativity and self-expression
Emphasis on positive reinforcement and social connection
Warm and welcoming with a wholesome tone

What makes it interesting:

Low-pressure environment — Cozy games offer a relaxing escape from the intensity of other genres, creating a safe space for self-expression and connection without fear of judgment or failure.
Shared goals and progress — Collaborating toward shared objectives like community building or resource management fosters a sense of camaraderie and mutual support.
Natural social bonding — Everyday activities like fishing, gardening, or attending festivals naturally encourage social interaction and strengthen relationships.
Positive reinforcement — Explicit social mechanics like gifting as well as other rewards for kindness and helpfulness create a positive feedback loop that reinforces prosocial behavior.
Tranquil atmosphere — The incorporation of biophilic and salutogenic design elements, such as nature, warm lighting, and soothing soundtracks creates a naturally calming atmosphere, encouraging players to relax and unwind.
Cozy social fabric — The welcoming atmosphere and aesthetic, when combined with the mechanics, establish strong social norms that naturally discourage disruptive behavior and empower players to collectively maintain a positive and inclusive community.
Creativity — Open-ended gameplay and customization options allow players to explore their creativity and express their individuality in a shared but generally safe space (due to the social norms).

Design recommendations:

Design spaces and activities that encourage players to interact with each other in positive and re-affirming ways. This could include shared town squares, community events, or collaborative projects.
Provide tools and options for players to express themselves creatively, such as customizable avatars, homes, or farms. This allows players to showcase their unique personalities and connect with others who share their interests.
Cozy games often prioritize the experience of playing and interacting with others over achieving specific goals. This creates a more relaxed and enjoyable experience for players.

Co-op puzzle

Games like Unravel Two and It Takes Two utilize cooperative puzzle-solving to create a sense of interdependence and shared discovery among players. Through puzzles that demand simultaneous actions, complementary abilities, or the sharing of unique perspectives, these games incentivize communication and collaboration. Visual cues and environmental storytelling further enhance cooperation by guiding players toward shared solutions and reinforcing the feeling of teamwork.

Operation: Tango. Image courtesy of press kit.

Unravel Two. Image courtesy of press kit.

Snipperclips. Image courtesy of press kit.

It Takes Two. Image courtesy of press kit.

Portal 2. Image courtesy of press kit.

First-person perspective looking at your friend in We Were Here: The Friendship

We Were Here: Forever. Image courtesy of press kit.

Examples: Unravel Two, It Takes Two, Portal 2 (co-op mode), We Were Here series, Snipperclips, Operation: Tango

Focus: Collaborative puzzle-solving that requires communication, coordination, and complementary contributions

Common features:

Interdependent puzzles requiring multiple players to solve
Environmental storytelling and visual cues
Emphasis on problem-solving and logical thinking
Often feature asynchronous progression for flexible gameplay

What makes it interesting:

Intellectual challenge and satisfaction — Provides a unique sense of accomplishment as players combine their intellect and problem-solving skills to overcome challenges together. The “aha!” moment of solving a difficult puzzle is amplified when shared with others.
Explicit communication and coordination — Often requires players to communicate effectively and coordinate their actions to solve puzzles. This can lead to fun and engaging interactions as players brainstorm solutions, debate strategies, and celebrate successes together.
Narrative integration — Some puzzle games weave a compelling narrative into the puzzle-solving experience, deepening player engagement and providing a shared context for collaboration. These can reinforce deep themes of collaboration and bonding.

Design recommendations:

Create puzzles that can be solved in multiple ways, allowing players to experiment and discover solutions that best suit their individual strengths and playstyles.
Offer immediate and clear feedback to players’ actions, helping them understand the consequences of their choices and adjust their strategies accordingly.
Ensure that puzzles are challenging enough to be satisfying but not so difficult that they become frustrating or discourage collaboration. Consider difficult or comfort settings that can allow people to engage with the content in a way that suits them.
Implement tools and mechanics that help players communicate, share information, and coordinate their actions effectively.

Social deduction games like Among Us are a fascinating subgenre that thrives on hidden identities and communication. By creating scenarios of asymmetrical knowledge, they foster a unique blend of cooperation and suspicion as players strategize, share information, and engage in collective decision-making, all while navigating the constant threat of betrayal and hidden agendas. Clear communication channels, voting mechanics, and incentives for uncovering hidden roles further amplify this captivating collaborative experience.

Goose Goose Duck. Image courtesy of press kit.

Town of Salem. Image courtesy of press kit.

Among Us. Image courtesy of press kit.

Examples: Among Us, Town of Salem, Goose Goose Duck

Focus: Social deduction, communication, and uncovering hidden roles or information

Common features:

Information asymmetry and hidden roles
Discussion and debate mechanics
Voting systems and decision-making processes
Emphasis on trust, deception, and persuasion

What makes it interesting:

Distrust is a given — Although collaborative in nature, the game’s inherent deception creates a unique tension between teamwork and betrayal, leading to hilarious moments of cooperation but also instances of genuine upset among some players.
Voting mechanics — The social act of voting intensifies the game, forcing players to assess trust and make critical decisions based on limited information and persuasive arguments.
Information management — Players strategically control the flow of information, carefully balancing revelation and concealment to gain trust while safeguarding their hidden roles.
Social dynamics — Social deduction games act as a microcosm of real-world interactions, revealing groupthink, peer pressure, and persuasive tactics in fascinating ways.
Exclusion by design — Many social deduction games have an elimination mechanic, meaning players are sidelined as the game goes on — potentially leading to disengagement without special consideration.

Design recommendations:

Ensure that all roles have a chance to contribute meaningfully to the game regardless of their alignment. Avoid creating roles that are overly powerful or sidelined.
Give eliminated players something to do that feels meaningful, but isn’t too disruptive to players or the spirit of the game. In Among Us, players become ghosts once eliminated and are granted a limited set of abilities to keep them engaged.

Now what?

In addition to the links above, you may want to check out Kind Games: Designing for Prosocial Multiplayer from the 2023 Polaris game-design retreat, as well as Cozy Games, a report based on the output of the 2017 Project Horseshoe event.

See related content below for more!